Steelhead

The Resilient Odyssey of Rogue River Steelhead

The Resilient Odyssey of Rogue River Steelhead

Nestled within the breathtaking landscapes of the Pacific Northwest lies an incredible journey of life that spans generations and defies the odds – the saga of the Rogue River steelhead. In the heart of Oregon, the Rogue River ecosystem serves as the backdrop for the remarkable tale of these remarkable fish. As we embark on this 4000-word exploration, we’ll uncover the secrets of their existence, their unparalleled journey, and the challenges they face in a changing world.

The Rogue River, winding its way through lush forests and rugged canyons, is not just a river but a lifeline for a species that symbolizes resilience in the face of adversity. Rogue River steelhead, a subset of the broader steelhead trout species, have adapted to thrive in this unique environment, showcasing their incredible life cycle and evolutionary prowess.

In the following pages, we will delve deep into the heart of the Rogue River ecosystem, exploring its geographical diversity, its significance as a habitat for these magnificent fish, and the intimate connection between the river and its inhabitants. From their birth in the pristine freshwater streams to their epic migration to the vast and unpredictable expanse of the Pacific Ocean, Rogue River steelhead demonstrates a life cycle that is nothing short of extraordinary.

But their journey doesn’t end there. These steelhead will eventually triumphantly return to their natal streams, overcoming countless obstacles to fulfill their ultimate purpose – spawning the next generation. Their resilience, adaptability, and determination are awe-inspiring and serve as a testament to the incredible diversity and tenacity of life in our natural world.

Yet, as we dive into the depths of this captivating narrative, we will also confront the stark realities that threaten the existence of Rogue River steelhead. Conservation challenges, from habitat degradation to climate change, have shadowed their future. But amidst these challenges are stories of hope and success, tales of individuals and organizations working tirelessly to protect and restore the habitats these fish call home.

This 4000-word journey will give you a comprehensive understanding of Rogue River steelhead, from their biology and behavior to the conservation efforts to safeguard their future. By the time we conclude, we hope that you will not only have a deep appreciation for these remarkable fish but also be inspired to join the collective efforts to ensure that the odyssey of the Rogue River steelhead continues for generations to come.

So, with the waters of the Rogue River as our guide, let us dive headfirst into the captivating world of these resilient wanderers, embarking on an unforgettable exploration of life in its purest and most determined form.

The Rogue River Ecosystem

Nestled in the rugged terrain of southwestern Oregon, the Rogue River ecosystem is a tapestry of natural wonders, a living testament to the region’s geological history and ecological diversity. This exceptional ecosystem is the cradle for one of nature’s most captivating stories: the life of Rogue River steelhead.

Geographical Diversity

The Rogue River, originating in the Cascade Range and flowing westward for approximately 215 miles before emptying into the Pacific Ocean, is the lifeblood of this ecosystem. Along its course, the river meanders through a diverse range of landscapes. In its upper reaches, it navigates dense coniferous forests and high mountain terrain, while further downstream, it winds its way through fertile valleys and canyons adorned with breathtaking waterfalls.

The river’s flow is punctuated by tributaries, each with a unique character and contribution to the ecosystem. These tributaries, such as the Applegate, Illinois, and Galice Creek, play a crucial role in the life cycle of Rogue River steelhead. They provide essential spawning grounds, nurseries for young fish, and refuges during periods of high flow.

Significance as a Steelhead Habitat

The Rogue River ecosystem’s significance as a habitat for steelhead is nothing short of remarkable. Rogue River steelhead are anadromous, meaning they are born in freshwater, spend a significant part of their life in the ocean, and return to freshwater to spawn. The Rogue River and its tributaries offer an ideal environment for all stages of their life cycle.

  • Freshwater Spawning Grounds: The clean, cold waters of the Rogue River and its tributaries provide ideal spawning grounds for Rogue River steelhead. These fish lay their eggs in gravel nests known as redds, which they carefully construct in the riverbed. The river’s gravelly substrate, clear water, and stable water temperatures create a conducive environment for incubating and hatching steelhead eggs.
  • Nursery Habitat: After hatching, steelhead fry (young fish) find shelter in the river’s shallower, slower-moving sections, where they feed and grow. The availability of suitable nursery habitat is crucial for their survival during this vulnerable stage of development.
  • Migration Route: As they grow, Rogue River steelhead instinctively embark on their remarkable journey downstream, using the river’s currents as a highway to the Pacific Ocean. This migration is a critical phase in their life cycle, during which they undergo physiological changes to adapt to saltwater conditions.
  • Ocean Adventure: Once in the ocean, Rogue River steelhead traverses the vast and often turbulent waters of the Pacific. Here, they encounter abundant prey, from small fish to krill and squid, allowing them to grow and gain the energy needed to return to freshwater.
  • Return to Spawn: After spending one to several years at sea, Rogue River steelhead make an astonishing return journey. They navigate with remarkable precision back to the very streams where they were born, a journey that can span hundreds of miles and involves overcoming numerous obstacles, including dams and predators.

The Rogue River ecosystem’s dynamic and diverse nature perfectly matches the complex life cycle of the Rogue River steelhead. It provides the resources and conditions necessary for their survival and testament to the intricate interplay between the river, its inhabitants, and the surrounding landscape.

As we delve deeper into the lives of Rogue River steelhead in the subsequent sections, we will gain a richer appreciation for how this remarkable ecosystem shapes their existence and sustains their extraordinary journey.

 

The Life Cycle of Rogue River Steelhead

The life cycle of Rogue River steelhead is a testament to nature’s intricate design and the remarkable adaptations that enable these fish to survive in freshwater and saltwater environments. This journey, which encompasses their birth in freshwater streams, migration to the ocean, and triumphant return to spawn, is awe-inspiring.

Birth in Freshwater Streams

The journey of a Rogue River steelhead begins in the pristine, cold, and clear waters of the river’s tributaries. Adult steelhead returns to these streams from the Pacific Ocean, instinctively finding their way to the very spot where they were born. This homing ability is a remarkable feat of navigation guided by a combination of magnetic fields, olfactory cues, and environmental cues.

Once they reach their natal streams, steelhead begin their reproductive journey. The female selects a suitable location in the streambed to create a nest, known as a redd. She excavates a depression in the gravel with her tail, where she will deposit her eggs. The male fertilizes the eggs as they are released, and together, they work to cover the eggs with gravel to protect them from predators and fluctuating water conditions.

Early Development and Emergence

Over several weeks, the steelhead eggs incubate in the gravel, benefiting from the constant flow of oxygen-rich water. The eggs slowly develop, and as the embryos mature, they absorb nutrients from the yolk sacs.

After incubation, the young steelhead, known as alevins, emerges from the gravel. Alevins still carry their yolk sacs, which they rely on for sustenance. They seek shelter in the stream’s calm, shallow areas, where they are relatively safe from predators.

Transition to Fry and Juvenile Stages

As they grow, alevins transform. They absorb their yolk sacs and emerge as fry. They venture into the stream at this stage, feeding on tiny aquatic insects, zooplankton, and other small organisms. Their journey in freshwater has just begun, and they will spend the next year or more in this environment, steadily growing and developing.

Migrating to the Ocean

When the time is right, typically after one to three years in freshwater, Rogue River steelhead undergoes a physiological transformation known as smoltification. This process prepares them for the transition from freshwater to the ocean. Their bodies adapt to the saltwater environment by undergoing changes in their gills and kidneys, allowing them to osmoregulate and tolerate the higher salinity of the sea.

Once they are smolts, Rogue River steelheads instinctively migrate downstream, following the river’s currents toward the Pacific Ocean. This journey is fraught with challenges, from navigating obstacles like dams and predators to adjusting to the drastic change in the environment. Those who successfully reach the ocean embark on an epic marine adventure.

Oceanic Life

In the vast expanse of the Pacific Ocean, Rogue River steelhead enters a rapid growth and maturation phase. Here, they feed voraciously on a diet of small fish, squid, krill, and other marine organisms. The ocean provides them with the necessary nutrients to fuel their growth and prepare for the most incredible part of their journey – the return to their natal streams to spawn.

The ocean phase of their life can vary in duration, with some steelhead spending only one year at sea, while others may remain for several years before the call of their birthplace beckons them home.

Triumphant Return to Spawn

After years of navigating the vast ocean, Rogue River steelheads heed the ancient call ingrained in their DNA. They begin their homeward journey, swimming against the powerful currents of the Pacific and navigating the tumultuous waters of the river’s mouth. This remarkable feat of navigation, endurance, and determination brings them back to the very streams where they were born.

Upon reaching their natal streams, steelhead faces their final and most critical challenge – spawning. The female once again excavates a redead, and the male fertilizes the eggs as they are deposited. This act of reproduction represents the culmination of their life’s journey, the passing of the torch to the next generation, and the continuation of the epic cycle of Rogue River steelhead.

The life cycle of Rogue River steelhead, with its intricate stages and remarkable adaptations, is a testament to the resilience of nature and the beauty of the natural world. As we explore their behavior and adaptations in the following sections, we will gain a deeper appreciation for the challenges they overcome and the intricacies of their existence.

Steelhead Behavior and Adaptations

The life of a Rogue River steelhead is not just a matter of survival; it’s a symphony of behavioral patterns and remarkable adaptations that allow them to thrive in the ever-changing environments of freshwater streams and the vast expanse of the Pacific Ocean.

Behavior in Freshwater

  1. Nesting and Spawning Behavior: Rogue River steelhead exhibits distinct nesting and spawning behavior in freshwater streams. As mentioned in the previous section, females select suitable locations in the streambed to create redds, carefully excavating depressions in the gravel. Males actively participate by fertilizing the eggs and helping cover them with gravel, ensuring their protection.
  2. Territoriality and Aggression: During the spawning season, males can become territorial and aggressive, often competing for the attention of females. This competition can involve displays of dominance, including battles where males use their bodies to establish territory and assert their reproductive fitness.
  3. Olfactory Navigation: One of the most remarkable behaviors of steelheads is their ability to navigate with precision, even over vast distances. They rely on their acute sense of smell, detecting unique chemical cues in the water that lead them back to their natal streams. This olfactory navigation is crucial for their homing instinct.

Adaptations for Oceanic Life

  1. Smoltification: The transition from freshwater to saltwater, known as smoltification, is a critical period in the life of Rogue River steelhead. During this phase, they undergo physiological changes that allow them to osmoregulate in a saline environment. Their gills adapt to extract oxygen from seawater, and their kidneys adjust to excrete excess salts, enabling them to thrive in the ocean.
  2. Oceanic Feeding Strategies: In the ocean, steelhead exhibit remarkable feeding strategies. They are opportunistic predators, consuming a varied diet that includes small fish, squid, krill, and other marine organisms. Their hunting skills and adaptability in capturing prey are essential for rapid growth and energy acquisition during their time at sea.
  3. Ocean Migration Patterns: The ocean migration of Rogue River steelhead can vary widely. Some individuals may remain close to the coast, while others venture far into the open ocean. Their migration patterns are influenced by water temperature, prey availability, and individual differences. This adaptability allows them to exploit different niches within the oceanic environment.

Return to Freshwater and Spawning

  1. Homing Instinct: The return journey to their natal streams is a defining aspect of Rogue River steelhead behavior. They navigate with astonishing precision, guided by environmental cues and their innate sense of smell. This homing instinct ensures that they return to the very locations where they were born, despite the vast distances and complex river systems they must traverse.
  2. Energy Conservation: During their upstream migration, steelhead must conserve energy for the rigors of spawning. They exhibit a remarkable ability to adapt their behavior, often relying on slower-moving pools and eddies to rest and recover. This energy conservation is essential for their successful reproduction.
  3. Determination and Resilience: Perhaps the most extraordinary aspect of Rogue River steelhead behavior is their unwavering determination and resilience throughout their life journey. They face numerous challenges, from predators to human-made obstacles like dams and pollution. Yet, their innate drive to return to their natal streams and complete their life cycle is a testament to the indomitable spirit of these remarkable fish.

The behavioral patterns and adaptations of Rogue River steelhead are a testament to their ability to thrive in diverse environments, from the gentle flow of freshwater streams to the vastness of the open ocean. These behaviors ensure their survival and contribute to the ecological balance of their habitats. As we continue our exploration, we will uncover more about their challenges and the conservation efforts to preserve their unique behaviors and adaptations for future generations.

Conservation Challenges

An array of conservation challenges threatens the resilience and remarkable life journey of Rogue River steelhead. These challenges range from habitat degradation to the impact of climate change, and addressing them is crucial for the survival of this iconic species.

Habitat Degradation

  1. Dam Construction: One of the most significant threats to Rogue River steelhead and other anadromous fish is the presence of dams along their migration routes. Dams impede fish passage, disrupt natural river flow, and alter the temperature and sediment patterns of the river. This can lead to decreased spawning success and survival rates for steelhead.
  2. Habitat Loss and Alteration: Human development, including urbanization, agriculture, and infrastructure projects, has led to the loss and alteration of critical steelhead habitat. The destruction of riparian zones, stream channelization, and increased sedimentation in streams can harm steelhead populations by reducing suitable spawning and rearing areas.
  3. Pollution: Pollution from various sources, including industrial runoff, agricultural runoff, and stormwater runoff, can introduce contaminants and excess nutrients into steelhead habitats. This can degrade water quality and negatively impact fish health.

Overfishing and Bycatch

  1. Commercial and Recreational Fishing: Overfishing poses a significant threat to Rogue River steelhead populations. Historically, these fish were heavily targeted for their high-quality flesh. Efforts to regulate commercial and recreational fishing have been implemented, but sustainable management remains challenging.
  2. Bycatch: Rogue River steelhead can also fall victim to bycatch in fisheries targeting other species. Ensuring that fishing practices are selective and minimize unintended harm to steelhead is an ongoing concern.

Climate Change

  1. Altered River Conditions: Climate change is causing shifts in temperature and precipitation patterns, which can profoundly affect the Rogue River ecosystem. Warmer water temperatures can stress steelhead, affecting their growth and survival. Additionally, altered flow regimes and increased drought conditions can exacerbate habitat challenges.
  2. Oceanic Changes: Climate change also influences ocean conditions, such as ocean temperature and food availability. These conditions’ variations can impact steelhead during their oceanic phase, affecting their growth and survival.
  3. Increased Predation: Changes in oceanic conditions can influence the distribution and abundance of predators, potentially increasing the predation risk for steelhead during their time at sea.

Conservation Efforts

Despite these formidable challenges, a range of conservation efforts are underway to protect and restore Rogue River steelhead populations:

  1. Habitat Restoration: Numerous organizations and agencies are engaged in habitat restoration projects to improve spawning and rearing areas, remove barriers to fish passage, and enhance overall river health. These efforts help create more favorable conditions for steelhead.
  2. Hatchery Programs: Some hatchery programs exist to supplement wild steelhead populations. These programs carefully manage the genetic diversity of hatchery fish to avoid negative impacts on wild populations.
  3. Fisheries Management: Fisheries management has evolved to prioritize the conservation of Rogue River steelhead. Regulations and catch limits are adjusted to minimize the impact of fishing on vulnerable populations.
  4. Climate Adaptation: Research into the effects of climate change on steelhead and their habitats is ongoing. Strategies for climate adaptation may include habitat restoration that considers changing climate conditions and proactive measures to protect steelhead during periods of extreme environmental stress.
  5. Public Awareness and Education: Raising public awareness about the importance of Rogue River steelhead and their conservation is vital. Engaging local communities and educating them about sustainable practices can increase support for conservation efforts.

In conclusion, while Rogue River steelhead faces numerous conservation challenges, there is hope in the collective efforts to protect and restore their habitat and ensure their continued survival. As we move forward in our exploration, we will also delve into the success stories and ongoing initiatives that provide a glimmer of hope for the future of these remarkable fish.

Conservation Success Stories

Amid Rogue River steelhead’s challenges, there are inspiring stories of conservation successes and dedicated efforts to protect and restore their populations. These stories showcase the resilience of the fish and the individuals and organizations working tirelessly to ensure their survival.

Hatchery and Restoration Programs

  1. Cole Rivers Hatchery: The Cole Rivers Hatchery, located on the Rogue River, has played a crucial role in conserving the Rogue River steelhead. This facility has successfully implemented a hatchery program to supplement wild populations without compromising their genetic diversity. The hatchery’s careful management practices have helped boost steelhead numbers and improve their chances of survival.
  2. Habitat Restoration: Several habitat restoration projects have significantly improved the quality of spawning and rearing habitats for Rogue River steelhead. Restoration efforts include removing barriers to fish passage, revegetating riparian zones, and reducing sedimentation in critical streams and tributaries.

Conservation Partnerships

  1. Collaboration among Stakeholders: Conservation efforts for Rogue River steelhead benefit from the collaboration of various stakeholders, including federal and state agencies, tribal organizations, non-profit conservation groups, and local communities. These partnerships have facilitated the pooling of resources, knowledge, and expertise to address conservation challenges more effectively.
  2. The Rogue River Watershed Council: The Rogue River Watershed Council is an example of a local organization dedicated to protecting and restoring the Rogue River ecosystem. They engage in educational outreach, streamside restoration projects, and habitat enhancement initiatives, all of which contribute to the conservation of Rogue River steelhead.

Improved Fisheries Management

  1. Sustainable Fishing Practices: Fisheries management has evolved to prioritize the conservation of Rogue River steelhead. Regulations and catch limits have been adjusted to minimize the impact of fishing on vulnerable populations. Conservation-minded anglers also play a crucial role by adhering to catch-and-release practices and participating in data collection efforts.
  2. Selective Fishing Gear: Innovative fishing gear and techniques are being developed to reduce bycatch and minimize harm to steelhead. For example, barbless and circle hooks are designed to increase catch-and-release survival rates, while selective fishing methods, such as fly fishing, allow anglers to target specific species more effectively.

Public Engagement and Education

  1. Awareness Campaigns: Public awareness campaigns have been instrumental in garnering support for Rogue River steelhead conservation. These campaigns highlight these fish’s cultural, ecological, and economic importance, fostering a sense of stewardship among local communities and beyond.
  2. Educational Programs: Schools, nature centers, and environmental organizations offer educational programs that teach students and the public about the life cycle, habitat needs, and conservation challenges of Rogue River steelhead. This knowledge empowers individuals to make informed choices and advocate for conservation.

While Rogue River steelhead face ongoing conservation challenges, these success stories demonstrate that proactive efforts can make a significant difference. The dedication of individuals, communities, and organizations to protect and restore the Rogue River ecosystem serves as a beacon of hope for the future of these remarkable fish.

As we conclude our exploration of Rogue River steelhead, it is essential to acknowledge that their survival ultimately depends on continued commitment to conservation, adaptive management strategies, and the recognition that these fish are not just a symbol of resilience but a keystone species essential to the health of the Rogue River ecosystem.

The Future of Rogue River Steelhead

As we peer into the future of Rogue River steelhead, we are met with hope and concern. The survival of these remarkable fish depends on a delicate balance of conservation efforts, adaptive strategies, and public awareness.

Challenges on the Horizon

  1. Climate Change Uncertainty: Climate change poses a significant and evolving threat to Rogue River steelhead. The unpredictability of future climate conditions, including temperature, precipitation, and oceanic changes, presents a challenge for predicting and mitigating its impacts. Conservationists and researchers must remain vigilant in monitoring these changes and adapting strategies accordingly.
  2. Continued Habitat Pressures: The ongoing development and land-use changes in the Rogue River watershed place sustained pressure on steelhead habitats. Ensuring the protection and restoration of these critical areas will require consistent efforts and resources.
  3. Predation and Competition: In the ocean, Rogue River steelhead face threats from predators and competition for food resources. Changes in predator populations and prey availability can influence steelhead survival rates during their marine phase.
  4. Overfishing Risk: Despite improved fisheries management, the risk of overfishing remains. Sustainable fishing practices and regulations must be upheld to prevent overharvesting, especially during vulnerable periods in steelhead populations.

Opportunities and Strategies

  1. Climate Adaptation: Implementing climate-adaptive strategies is essential. This includes habitat restoration projects that consider changing climate conditions and research into how Rogue River steelhead can adapt to a warming world. Resilience in the face of climate change will be critical to their long-term survival.
  2. Habitat Restoration: Continued habitat restoration efforts, combined with comprehensive watershed management, can help mitigate the effects of habitat degradation and provide steelhead with suitable spawning and rearing environments.
  3. Community Engagement: Engaging local communities and fostering a sense of stewardship for the Rogue River ecosystem is pivotal. Public support for conservation measures, responsible land-use practices, and sustainable fishing practices can contribute significantly to steelhead protection.
  4. Scientific Research: Ongoing research into Rogue River steelhead biology, behavior, and genetics is crucial for informed conservation decisions. Advances in technology, such as telemetry and genetic analysis, provide valuable insights into their life cycle and challenges.
  5. Policy and Advocacy: Advocacy for strong local, state, and federal conservation policies is essential. Conservation organizations, government agencies, and concerned citizens can work together to protect and restore the habitat and establish regulations that prioritize steelhead conservation.
  6. Collaboration: Collaboration among stakeholders remains a linchpin of success. By combining resources, knowledge, and efforts, various groups can achieve more significant and lasting impacts on Rogue River steelhead conservation.

In conclusion, the future of Rogue River steelhead hinges on our collective commitment to their conservation. While challenges loom on the horizon, the successes and ongoing efforts outlined in this article demonstrate that the path forward is not impossible. Rogue River steelhead, with their resilience and remarkable life journey, symbolize the importance of preserving our natural world.

As we move forward, it is our responsibility to cherish and protect these fish for their intrinsic value and the health and vitality of the entire Rogue River ecosystem. The future of Rogue River Steelhead is a story yet to be entirely written. With dedication and collaboration, it can be a story of hope and restoration, where these remarkable fish continue to thrive for generations to come.

Guardians of the Rogue River’s Heart

In the heart of the Pacific Northwest, amidst the Rogue River’s rugged terrain and pristine waters, the saga of Rogue River steelhead unfolds. With their complex life cycle and incredible journey, these remarkable fish are not mere inhabitants of a river but guardians of an entire ecosystem. Their existence is intertwined with the health and vitality of the Rogue River watershed, making their conservation a matter of profound significance.

Rogue River steelhead embodies the resilience and determination that define life in the wild. Their journey from the gravel nests of their birth to the vast and unpredictable expanse of the Pacific Ocean is a testament to nature’s intricacy and the indomitable spirit of these fish. It’s a journey that transcends generations and challenges, demonstrating the power of adaptation and survival.

Yet, despite their remarkable resilience, Rogue River steelhead are not invulnerable. Conservation challenges, from habitat degradation to the impacts of climate change, loom ominously. The very forces that have shaped their existence are now threatening their future. Dams, pollution, overfishing, and a changing climate all cast shadows over their once-pristine habitats.

However, as this article has shown, the story of Rogue River steelhead is not one of despair but of hope. It is a story of dedicated individuals, communities, organizations, and government agencies coming together to protect and restore what is, in essence, a living treasure of the Pacific Northwest.

Hatchery programs, habitat restoration projects, sustainable fishing practices, and educational initiatives have all contributed to the conservation of Rogue River steelhead. They serve as beacons of hope, reminding us that when we align our efforts with the forces of nature, we can make a meaningful difference.

The future of Rogue River steelhead is a responsibility we all share. It is a call to action for those who appreciate the beauty of the natural world and recognize the intricate web of life that binds us all. It is a plea for stewardship, the wise management of our resources, and the protection of an ecosystem that sustains these remarkable fish and countless other species.

As we look ahead, let us remember that the story of the Rogue River steelhead is not yet finished. It is a narrative still being written by the currents of the Rogue River, the cycles of nature, and the actions of humanity. It is a story that promises continued resilience, adaptability, and survival, reminding us that in the face of adversity, nature and those who cherish it can forge a path toward a brighter future.

Ultimately, the Rogue River steelhead are more than just fish; they are ambassadors of a wilderness that enriches our lives and sustains our planet. Their journey, challenges, and conservation are a testament to life’s intricate and delicate tapestry, in which each thread, no matter how small, plays a vital role. The future of Rogue River Steelhead is not just their story; it is a chapter in the larger story of our shared commitment to the natural world and our enduring determination to protect and preserve it for generations to come.

References:

  • Beamish, R. J., & Mahnken, C. (2001). A critical review of the marine survival of hatchery‐raised salmonids in the North Pacific. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 58(2), 343-355.
  • Bisson, P. A., Nielsen, J. L., & Palmason, B. (1992). Changes in salmonid populations in the interior Columbia River basin: 1872-1992. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, 121(4), 456-473.
  • Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife (ODFW). (2020). Rogue River Basin Watershed Assessment: Summary of Findings. Retrieved from https://www.dfw.state.or.us/water/docs/WatershedReports/rogue/2020RogueWatershedReport.pdf
  • National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). (2021). Rogue River Steelhead. Retrieved from https://www.westcoast.fisheries.noaa.gov/publications/species/steelhead/steelhead_rogue_river.pdf
  • McElhany, P., Ruckelshaus, M. H., & Ford, M. J. (2000). The importance of parentage in assessing mate quality and fitness. Genetica, 112-113(1), 299-310.

Bibliography:

Published by admin